A study on the life table of the fruit borer, (Helicoverpa armigera), on chilli.

ABSTRACT
The overall duration necessary for the life cycle to progress from eggs to the emergence of adults ranged from 33 to 44 days, with an average of 38.5 ± 7.78 days. In contrast, the complete life cycle from eggs to the death of both male and female was observed to be finalized within 39 to 52 days, averaging 45.5 ± 9.19 days for males and 40 to 53 days, averaging 46.5 ± 9.19 days for females. Specifically, the time required for egg hatching was approximately 3 to 4 days, with an average of 3.5 days. The total larval stage lasted about 17 to 23 days, averaging 20 days, while the pre-pupal phase took 1 to 2 days, averaging 1.5 days. The pupal stage lasted around 12 to 15 days, with an average of 13.5 days. The pre-oviposition period extended from 2 to 5 days, averaging 3.5 days, and the oviposition period lasted 5 to 7 days, with an average of 6 days. The post-oviposition period was about 1 to 2 days, averaging 1.5 days. The longevity of adult males and females varied slightly depending on food availability. Males with food lived for approximately 6 to 8 days, averaging 7 days, while females survived for about 7 to 9 days. Males without food had a lifespan of about 1 to 2 days, averaging 1.5 days, whereas females lived for about 1 to 3 days, with an average of around 2 days. The total life cycle duration for male moths with food was between 39 to 52 days, averaging 45.5 days, while the total life cycle for female moths with food ranged from 40 to 53 days, averaging 46.5 days.
Keywords: Chilli peppers, fruit borer, fecundity period, aphids
INTRODUCTION
Chilli is among the most significant spices cultivated in India. It originated in South and Central America around 1700 BC. The first introduction of chilli to India occurred when the Portuguese brought it from Brazil at the end of the fifteenth century. Its cultivation gained popularity in the 17th century, and since then, it has become a vital spice and vegetable crop, playing an essential role in numerous cuisines.
	Throughout tropical and warm temperature of world, chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is known for being one of the necessary crops cultivated as ‘vegetable and commercial spice crop’. This spice crop is of great importance favoured for its fruit as it is used in green as well as ripe and dried form. Chilli peppers are used for their sensory quality of strong smell and taste, flavour and colour which confirms them as one of the most liked spices in many parts of the world. In curry, chilli is pre-owned as paste, powder, broken or whole form. The chilli pepper pods are used either resh or manufactured form like chilli powder, oleoresin, capsanthin, chilli oil, chilli paste and chilli sauce.
Chilli is a part of human’s diet and are enriched with vitamins, especially vitamin ‘A’ and ‘C’ and minerals. Beside regular use of chilli such as vegetables, spices, flavouring, sauces and pickles, it is also being used in medicinal, cosmetics and beverage purpose (Tiwari et al.,). “Green chilli per 100 gm of edible portion has a moisture content of 85.7 gm, protein 2.9 gm, fat 0.6 gm and minerals 1.0 gm (Das 2001). The strength of red colour of chilli is mainly due to the existence of two pigment namely “capsanthin and its isomer capsorubin”. Pungency is due to capsaicin which also control anti-cancerous properties. This is the main element for preparation of medication for heart disease and pain relief. Chilli is important anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.
The genus and family to which chilli comes from are Capsicum and Solanaceae. Mainly five species of Capsicum spp. are cultivated which includes “C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutesence, and C. pubescens.” C. annum L. is the most broadly cultivated species all over the world for its pungent (Chilli syn. Hot pepper) and non-pungent (Sweet pepper) fruits. Chilli is an herbaceous, annual crop, having a basal and terminal gathering of leaves. It is observed that in some chilli variety the leaves have reticulate venation and absence of basal meristem. The blossoms are bisexual type. The flowers are actinomorphic. 
India is the 2nd largest producer of chilli in the world and at present about one-fourth of world’s chilli is produced in India. World’s hottest chilli (Bhut Jolokia) is cultivated in hilly terrains of Assam in a small town named Tezpur, India. In India, chilli is grown in 634-to-921-thousand-hectare area with production of 364 to 895 thousand tonnes with an average yield of 574 to 957 kg per hectare (Anonymous, 2024). This crop is grown in almost all parts of India with Andhra Pradesh having the maximum acre of agricultural land followed by Telangana, Karnataka, West Bengal, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Chhattisgarh encompasses an area of 41,359 hectares dedicated to chilli cultivation, yielding a production of 280,312 metric tons (Anonymous 2023). Chilli is cultivated across all regions of Chhattisgarh throughout the year. Due to its year-round cultivation, there is a continuous transmission of insect pests from sowing to harvest and across different seasons. The chilli crop is susceptible to various insect pests. Notably, H. armigera significantly contributes to fruit damage, adversely impacting market value. This paper examines life table studies that provide insights into the fecundity period and the life cycle of pests from egg to adult. Among the various insect pests affecting chilli crops, thrips, particularly S. dorsalis, are significant, potentially causing yield losses ranging from 50 to 90 percent (Borah, 1987). Patel and Gupta (1998) also documented losses attributed to thrips, estimating them between 60.5 and 74.3 percent. Reddy and Reddy (1999) indicated that losses due to fruit borers can reach as high as 90 percent. The yield of green chilli is further compromised by aphids, jassids, whiteflies, and mites under field conditions (Anonymous, 1979). The combined damage from mites and thrips has been estimated at approximately 50 percent (Kandasamy et al., 1990). The fruit borer undergoes a life cycle consisting of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult, with an average life cycle duration of 1 to 2 months. The minimum average duration for eggs is 5 to 6 days, the average duration for larvae is around 18 days, and the average duration for the pupa stage ranges from 7 to 34 days.

MATERIAL AND METHODS
The biology of fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera on chilli was studied in the laboratory condition, Department of Entomology College of Agriculture, Raipur from January to March 2024. A brief account of techniques used in the present study is described below:
The initial pest culture was established by collecting eggs from the instructional farm of the College of Agriculture in Raipur, C.G., during January 2024. After hatching, the individual larvae were raised in glass jars to prevent cannibalism. Fresh tender leaves and apical shoots were provided daily as food for the first and second instar larvae. Subsequently, tender leaves continued to be supplied daily as nourishment for the third to sixth instars until pupation. Newly formed pupae were placed individually in small plastic jars filled with dry soil, the tops of which were covered with muslin cloth and secured tightly with a rubber band. The freshly emerged male and female adults were each confined in separate glass jars. A cotton swab soaked in a 10 percent honey solution was placed in the jar, which was wrapped in black paper to facilitate the observation of egg-laying. The top of the jar was also covered with muslin cloth and secured with a rubber band. The dates for pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition periods were meticulously recorded.
Pre-oviposition period
	The duration necessary for a female moth to transition from pupa to the onset of egg laying was documented for ten females. Based on this data, the average pre-oviposition period was calculated.
Oviposition period
	To determine the oviposition period, the dates of the first and last eggs laid by female moths were documented. The interval between these two dates was regarded as the oviposition period, which was recorded for ten females, and the average oviposition period was calculated.
Post-oviposition period
	The duration marking the conclusion of oviposition by the female. Based on this, the average post-oviposition period was calculated.
Site of oviposition
	Microscopic examinations at the oviposition site under controlled conditions were conducted to determine the oviposition period. The surfaces of the paper, glass jar, cotton swab, and muslin cloth were meticulously inspected for the presence of eggs.
Fecundity
	To examine fecundity, the total quantity of eggs produced by each female throughout its lifespan was recorded. A total of ten females were monitored, and the average fecundity was calculated.

Incubation period
	To examine the incubation period, the duration from the laying of the egg to its hatching was documented as the incubation period. A group of one hundred eggs was monitored closely.
Pre-pupal period
The duration necessary for the complete development of larvae, as evidenced by the halt in feeding until the full formation of the pupa, was documented for ten larvae. The average pre-pupal period was calculated, and the data is presented.
Pupal period
            To record pupal period, ten freshly formed pupae were kept under observation in plastic jars till emergence of adult and on this basis the average pupal period was worked out. The mean length and breadth of pupa were also recorded by using “millimetre scale” on the basis of measurements taken for ten pupae.
Adult longevity
Recently emerged adults were categorized by sex and placed in separate glass jars, with a cotton swab soaked in a 10% honey solution suspended inside each jar to serve as nourishment for the moths. To assess the lifespan of adult moths without food, ten newly emerged male and female moths were placed in a different jar that did not contain the 10% honey solution. The tops of all jars were covered with muslin cloth and secured tightly with rubber bands. The lifespan of the ten males and females was recorded by monitoring the time from emergence to death of the adults. The data collected were utilized to calculate the average longevity of male and female moths both with and without food.
Life cycle
            The total period for the completion of life cycle was worked out based on the duration of egg, larval, pre-pupal, pupal and adult stage.
Results and discussion
The results obtained are presented and discussed here under:
Pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition period
	The pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition period were recorded and the result are presented in table 1.
Table 1: Pre-oviposition, oviposition and post oviposition period of Helicoverpa armigera on chilli.
S.No	Pre-oviposition	Oviposition	Post-oviposition	
1	4	6	1	
2	2	6	1	
3	3	7	2	
4	3	5	2	
5	4	6	2	
6	2	7	1	
7	5	5	1	
8	3	5	2	
9	2	6	1	
10	5	6	1	
Range	2-5	5-7	1-2	
Mean	3.3	5.9	1.4	
S. D±	1.16	0.74	0.52	
	
It was found that the pre-oviposition period ranged from 2 to 5 days, with an average duration of 3.3 ± 1.16 days. The oviposition period varied between 5 and 7 days, averaging 5.9 ± 0.74 days. The post-oviposition period was noted to last only 1 to 2 days, with a mean of 1.4 ± 0.52 days. These findings align with those of Baikar and Naik, who indicated that the pre-oviposition period ranged from 2 to 4 days, with an average of 3.1 ± 0.74 days. The oviposition period was reported to be between 5 and 6 days, with an average of 5.5 ± 0.53 days. The post-oviposition period was similarly recorded for only 1 to 2 days, with a mean of 1.3 ± 0.48 days. Observations by Bhatt and Patel (2001) also corroborate these findings, as they reported the pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition periods to be 2.85, 7.5, and 1.10 days, respectively, on chickpea. Additionally, Pandey and Kumar (2007) reported that the pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition periods lasted for 3.12 ± 0.66, 9.8 ± 0.54, and 1.22 ± 0.36 days, respectively, on chickpea. Furthermore, Sharma et al. (2011) indicated that the pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition periods were 2.15 – 3.21, 5.25 – 6.60, and 1.12 – 1.33 days, respectively.
Eggs
	In the laboratory where oviposition took place, the eggs were enveloped in yellowish-brown hairs. The hairs that were previously observed on the abdomen of the adult females were no longer visible after oviposition, indicating that the female had shed these abdominal hairs to cover the deposited egg mass. Upon the removal of the hairy mass, it was observed that the eggs were arranged in three layers, one on top of the other. The eggs were spherical and exhibited a yellowish-cream coloration.
	The current results concerning the eggs of Helicoverpa armigera align with the observations made by Rao and Abraham (2008), who noted that freshly laid eggs of Helicoverpa armigera were white, and prior to hatching, their color transitioned from yellowish to brownish. Additionally, Ali et al. (2009) reported that the dimensions of the eggs ranged from 0.42 mm to 0.60 mm in length and from 0.40 mm to 0.55 mm in breadth.
Hatching percentage
	The information concerning the hatching percentage is displayed in table 2. The data clearly indicated that the hatching duration varied from 2 to 4 days, while the hatching percentage fluctuated between 80 and 100, with an average of 90 ± 6.67 days.
Table 2: Incubation period and hatching percentage of Helicoverpa armigera on chilli.
S.no	No. of eggs observed	No. of eggs hatched (Days)	Total eggs hatched	Hatching percentage	
		1	2	3	4			
1	10	-	-	4	5	9	90	
2	10	-	-	4	5	9	90	
3	10	-	3	6	-	9	90	
4	10	-	-	4	4	8	80	
5	10	-	2	6	1	9	90	
6	10	-	-	3	5	8	80	
7	10	-	-	5	4	9	90	
8	10	-	4	4	1	9	90	
9	10	-	-	4	6	10	100	
10	10	-	-	5	5	10	100	
Range	8-10	80-100	
Mean	9	90	
S. D±	0.67	6.67	

Larval development
	In the current studies, it was noted that there are six larval instars. The details regarding the larval instars and the duration of the larval period are provided in table 3. The development duration of the larvae varied from 19 to 22 days, with a mean of 20.3 ± 1.07 days. Throughout this timeframe, the larvae underwent six moults. Below is a description of the larvae categorized by instar.
	The present observations are in accordance with Baikar and Naik, who reported that larval period of 21.8 days on chilli. Ali et al., (2009) reported the larval period of 16.96 days on chickpea.
First instar larvae
	The first instar lasted for 2-3 days with mean of 2.5 ± 0.53 days table 3. Newly hatched larvae were tiny, active and yellowish white to reddish brown with dark brown to black head capsule. 
Second instar larvae
	The second instar larvae lasted for 2-3 days. The mean of larvae that lasted for 2-3 days is 2.8 with a standard deviation of ±0.42 showed in table 3.
Third instar larvae
	The third instar larvae lasted for 3-4 days. The mean of larvae that lasted for 3-4 days is 3.6 with a standard deviation of ±0.52 showed in table 3.
Fourth instar larvae 
	The fourth instar larvae lasted for 3-4 days. The mean of larvae that lasted for 3-4 days is 3.4 with a standard deviation of ±0.52 showed in table 3.
Fifth instar larvae
	The fifth instar larvae lasted for 3-4 days. The mean of larvae that lasted for 3-4 days is 3.5 with a standard deviation of ± 0.53 showed in table 3.
Sixth instar larvae
	The sixth instar larvae lasted for 4-5 days. The mean of larvae that lasted for 4-5 days with a standard deviation of ± 0.52 showed in table 3.
The total duration of larval ranged from 19-22 days with a mean of 20.4 and a standard deviation of ±1.07 showed in table 3.
Table 3: Larval development of Helicoverpa armigera on chilli.
S.no	Duration of larval instars (days)	Total larval period	
	I	II	III	IV	V	VI		
1	2	3	3	3	4	5	20	
2	3	3	4	4	3	4	21	
3	3	2	4	3	3	4	19	
4	2	3	3	3	4	5	20	
5	2	3	3	4	4	5	21	
6	2	3	4	3	3	4	19	
7	3	2	4	3	4	4	20	
8	2	3	3	3	4	5	20	
9	3	3	4	4	3	5	22	
10	3	3	4	4	3	5	22	
Range	2-3	2-3	3-4	3-4	3-4	4-5	19-22	
Mean	2.5	2.8	3.6	3.4	3.5	4.6	20.4	
S.D±	0.53	0.42	0.52	0.52	0.53	0.52	1.07	

Life table of fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera.
Egg period
	Egg period lasted for an average of minimum of 3 days and a maximum of 4 days with a mean of 3.5 days and standard deviation of ± 0.71 table 4.
Larval period
	An average larval period of 1st instar larvae ranged for about 2 to 3 days with a mean value of 2.5 with a standard deviation of ± 0.71 showed in table 4.
	The second instar larvae lasted for 2-3 days. The mean of larvae ranged for about 2-3 days is 2.8 with a standard deviation of ±0.42 showed in table 4.
	The third instar larvae lasted for 3-4 days. The mean of larvae ranged for about 3-4 days is 3.6 with a standard deviation of ±0.52 showed in table 4.
	The fourth instar larvae lasted for 3-4 days. The mean of larvae ranged for about 3-4 days is 3.4 with a standard deviation of ±0.52 showed in table 4.
	The fifth instar larvae lasted for 3-4 days. The mean of larvae ranged for about 3-4 days is 3.5 with a standard deviation of ± 0.53 showed in table 4.
	The sixth instar larvae lasted for 4-5 days. The mean of larvae ranged for about 4-5 days with a standard deviation of ± 0.52 showed in table 4.
	The pre pupal period ranged for about 1 to 2 days with an average of 1.5 and standard deviation of ± 0.71 showed in table 4.
	Pupal period ranged for about 12 to 15 days with a mean value of 13.5 and standard deviation ± 2.12 showed in table 4.
	Life cycle form egg to adult emergence ranged with a minimum value of 33 days and maximum of 44 with mean value of 38.5 days and standard deviation of ± 7.78 showed in table 4.
Oviposition period
	Pre-oviposition period lasted for minimum of 2 days and a maximum of 5 days with an average mean of 3.5 and standard deviation of ± 2.12 showed in table 4.
 	Oviposition period lasted for a minimum of 5 and a maximum of 7 days with an average mean of 6 and standard deviation of ± 1.41 showed in table 4.
	Post-oviposition period lasted for minimum of 1 days and a maximum of 2 days with an average mean of 1.5 and standard deviation of ± 0.71 showed in table 4.
Adult longevity
The longevity of adult moths was examined for both sexes, with and without food, and the findings are presented in table 4. It was observed that male moths had a shorter lifespan. They survived without food for a duration of 1 to 2 days, averaging 1.5 ± 0.71 days, whereas females could live without food for 1 to 3 days, averaging 2 ± 1.41 days. However, when provided with a 10% honey solution, the longevity of male adults increased, ranging from 6 to 8 days with an average of 7 ± 1.41 days. In contrast, female adult longevity improved to between 7 and 9 days, with an average of 8 ± 1.41 days, as shown in table 4.
Adults
The adult moth of H. armigera exhibited a robust body structure accompanied by a wide thorax. The forewings displayed a series of dots along the edges. In contrast, the hind wings featured a broad dark-brown border at the apex. They also possessed yellowish edges and prominently marked veins. A notable difference in coloration was observed between male and female moths. Males were characterized by a greenish-grey hue, while females presented an orange-brown coloration with a tuft of hair at the tip of the abdomen. A nearly identical description of the adult moth has been provided by Ali et al. (2009) and A. A. Baikar and K. V. Naik (2016).
Total life table
	The data related to the life table is illustrated in table 4. The overall duration necessary for the life cycle to progress from eggs to the emergence of adults ranged from 33 to 44 days, with a mean of 38.5 ± 7.78 days. In contrast, the complete life cycle from eggs to the death of males and females was observed to be finalized within 39 to 52 days, averaging 45.5 ± 9.19 days for males and 40 to 53 days, averaging 46.5 ± 9.19 days for females, as shown in table 4.
Conclusion
The chilli crop is susceptible to various insect pests. Notably, H. armigera significantly contributes to fruit damage, adversely impacting market value. This study examined life table studies that provide insights into the fecundity period and the life cycle of pests from egg to adult. The total life cycle duration for male moths with food was between 39 to 52 days, averaging 45.5 days, while the total life cycle for female moths with food ranged from 40 to 53 days, averaging 46.5 days.

Table 4: Life table of Helicoverpa armigera
S.no	Particulars	Duration	Mean	Standard deviation	
		Minimum	Maximum			
1	Egg period	3	4	3.5	0.71	
2	Larval period					
	1st instar	2	3	2.5	0.71	
	2nd instar	2	3	2.5	0.71	
	3rd instar	3	4	3.5	0.71	
	4th instar	3	4	3.5	0.71	
	5th instar	3	4	3.5	0.71	
	6th instar	4	5	4.5	0.71	
	Total larval period	17	23	20	4.24	
3	Pre-pupal period	1	2	1.5	0.71	
4	Pupal period	12	15	13.5	2.12	
5	Life cycle (egg to adult emergence)	33	44	38.5	7.78	
6	pre- oviposition period	2	5	3.5	2.12	
	Oviposition period	5	7	6	1.41	
	Post-oviposition period	1	2	1.5	0.71	
7	Adult longevity					
	Male (with food)	6	8	7	1.41	
	Female (with food)	7	9	8	1.41	
	Male (without food)	1	2	1.5	0.71	
	Female (without food)	1	3	2	1.41	
8	Total life cycle					
	Male (with food)	39	52	45.5	9.19	
	Female (with food)	40	53	46.5	9.19	

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